From: LECHEM777@delphi.com
Date: Sat Dec 30 1995 - 00:08:15 EST
The Ugaritic literature was discovered in 1928-32 in Ras Shamra, Syria
and excavated by a French expedition. This proved to be the site of the
ancient city of Ugarit. The texts that were discovered were of a Semitic
language of a Canaanite people. Before the discovery of the tablets,
most of what was known about the Canaanites came from the Old Testament.
Many of the clay tablets found at Ugarit were written down about 1375-1345
BCE (Coogan 10). These texts were written and the city of Ugarit were
destroyed before the Israelite occupation of the area (Curtis 31). That is
if one believes that the Canaanites did not assimilate into the Israelite
religion and culture and/or that the Old Testament can not be seen as a
later phase of Canaanite literature. What makes the discovery of these
texts so spectacular is that we not only get a greater insight of a culture
we know nothing about outside the Old Testament, but that elements of
Canaanite literary styles are similar to those used in the Old Testament.
This is especially true in terms of their poetic styles. Hebrew poetry is
very similar to Ugaritic poetry. Both were far more similar with each other
in their poetry than in their prose. So similar are these styles that it is
possible to emend one with the use of a parallel passage in the other.
(Ginsberg 109)
Ugarit and Hebrew poetry both use parallelism as their most striking
feature (Curtis 109). Parallelism is the correlation of two verses in
meaning and expression. The relationship of the two verses is that the
thought or expression of the first verse is reflected in the second in an
either positive or negative manner.(Gevirtz 6) This literary devise would
develop fixed pairs, or cliches, (Gevirtz 9), that are two words, sometimes
three, that are often used together in a parallel. And the use of fixed
pairs (e.g. sea/river, hand/right hand, heart/liver) are common. An example
would be "stranger" and "foreigner", that occurs twelve times in biblical
poetry. (Gevirtz 9)
Ps. 81:9 There shall be no strange god among you; you shall not bow down
to a foreign god.
A similar number was found for the use of "hand" and "right hand", of
which was also used in the Ugarit. Most of the Ugarit word pairs have their
equivalent in the Biblical literature (Greenfield 550). It is amongst these
pairs that some amendments to the Bible could be suggested.
(1) III AB B:39 [Sei]zing [a cudgel] in his hand,
A bludgeon in his right hand, (ANAT)
Ps. 21:8 Your hand will find out all your enemies; your right hand will
find out those who hate you There are several types of parallels, many
were used in both bodies of literature. Such as semantic parallelism, a
parallelism in the meaning of words or phrases in poetry. This incorporates
the use of synonyms.
Ps. 29:4 The voice of the LORD is powerful;
the voice of the LORD is full of majesty.
(2) III AB A:2 To the earth shall fall the strong,
To the dust the mighty." (ANAT)
There is also syntactic parallelism, a parallelism of mutual
grammatical structure and placement for words or phrases in poetry.
Gen. 4:24 If Cain is avenged sevenfold, truly Lamech seventy-sevenfold.
e. II AB (vii) Sixty-six towns he took,
Seventy-seven hamlets; (ANAT)
There is also interlinear parallelism, the grouping and matching of
words and phrases by poetic equivalents. As well as many others.
Ps. 27:1 The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? The
LORD is the stronghold of my life; of whom shall I be afraid?
(1) III AB B:45
He con]fronts the messengers of Yamm,
The [en]voys of Judge Naha[r. (ANAT)
As with parallels, similar similes were also found in both literary
traditions (Greenfield 554).
Hosea 13:3 ...like chaff that swirls from the threshing floor or like smoke
from a window.
Ps. 10:9 they lurk in secret like a lion in its lair; they lurk that they
may seize the poor; they seize the poor and drag them off in their net.
The above biblical similes have their Ugarit counterparts found in a text
discovered in Ras Ibn Hani, near Ugarit. In the Ugarit text there was a call
for evildoers to leave "like smoke from a window" and "like a lion to its
lair. (Greenfield 555) There were other literary devices used in common
in the poetry of both bodies of literature. There was the use of the same
verb in parallelism in the perfect and imperfect tenses and the same root in
the active and passive voice. (Greenfield 550) As in "he has acted/he will
act" and "he will build/let it be built" (Greenfield 551). There were also
similar uses of rhetorical questions and stereotyped phrases (Greenfield
551, as well as repetition. These elements, amongst others, suggest a common
poetic tradition with the two bodies of literature.
Amongst the other elements that link the two literary traditions were
common mythological links. Similar mythical themes were used in both
traditions. But first we must discuss the objects of the Ugaritic poetry,
its pantheon.
El in the Canaanite pantheon was its head, whom presides over the
assembly of gods. He is often refered to as king, bull, father of mankind
(ab adam), creator of creatures, and Father of Years. El may have been the
creator, but no creation narrative has yet been found. He is consulted on
important issues such as the building of Baal's palace. (Curtis 83) The
assembly of gods that El resides over is similar to that described in
several Biblical verses (Curtis 113)(Greenfield 548).
Ps. 89:6 For who in the skies can be compared to the LORD? Who among the
heavenly beings is like the LORD,
Isa. 6:2 Seraphs were in attendance above Him; each had six wings: with
two they covered their faces, and with two they covered their feet, and with
two they flew.
Isa. 14:13 You said in your heart, I will ascend to heaven; I will raise
my throne above the stars of God; I will sit on the mount of assembly on the
heights of Zaphon;
1Kgs. 22:19 Then Micaiah said, Therefore hear the word of the LORD: I saw
the LORD sitting on his throne, with all the host of heaven standing beside
him to the right and to the left of him.
Dan. 7:10 A stream of fire issued and flowed out from his presence. A
thousand thousands served him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood
attending him. The court sat in judgment, and the books were opened.
e. II AB (V): 85 Unto Baal upon Zaphon's summit,
O'er a thousand fields, ten thousand acres.
Laughing, the Maiden Anath
Lifts up her voice and cries:
"Receive, Baal, the glad tidings I bring thee.
They will build thee a house like thy brethren's
And a court like unto thy kindred's (El's?).
The striking reminiscence of the above Ugarit passage to the preceding
Biblical passages is riveting.
Athirat was El's consort. She was possibly a goddess of the sea, and
mother of the gods. She had 70 offspring, including Yam, Mot, and Athtar
(Curtis 83).
Mot was Lord of Death, an adversary to life and fertility (Oldenburg
36), who combats with Baal and Anath. Mot in the Old Testament is paralleled
by le`y, Sheol. Both are characterized by desire that could not be
satisfied, and associated with a muddy pit. (Oldenburg 35) (Curtis 104).
g. I AB (i): 9 From the tomb of the Godly Mot
From the Pit of El's Belov'd Ghazir.
g. I AB (ii):1 One lip to earth and one to heaven,
[He stretches his to]ngue to the stars.
Baal enters his mouth,
(ii):8 His [filthy] land of inheritance. (ANAT)
Isa. 5:14 Therefore Sheol has enlarged its appetite and opened its mouth
beyond measure; the nobility of Jerusalem and her multitude go down, her
throng and all who exult in her.
Isa. 14:15 But you are brought down to Sheol, to the depths of the Pit.
Ps. 40:2 He drew me up from the desolate pit, out of the miry bog, and set
my feet upon a rock, making my steps secure.
Ps. 69:14 rescue me from sinking in the mire; let me be delivered from my
enemies and from the deep waters.
Ps. 69:15 Do not let the flood sweep over me, or the deep swallow me up,
or the Pit close its mouth over me.
There is in general a great deal of similarity between the Hebrew and Ugarit
concepts of death and the underworld (Curtis 111).
Yam, El's first born (Oldenburg 32), was Identified with Ltn, i.e.
Leviathan (Oldenburg 33). His epitaphs included Prince Sea and Judge River
often used in parallelism (Oldenburg 32). Rivers were seen by the early
Canaanites as dragon-serpents due to their winding twisted nature. This
gives credence to the speculation that Leviathan in the Hebrew, oziel, may
have been derived from the Hebrew word for twisted, diel. (Oldenburg 33)
Isa. 27:1 On that day the LORD with his cruel and great and strong sword
will punish Leviathan the fleeing serpent, Leviathan the twisting serpent,
and he will kill the dragon that is in the sea.
Though El was the supreme deity, he was not an active force in the
Ugaritic universe (Curtis 83). Rather Yam was ascending into greater
prominence as an active force in the creation. He wanted to build his own
palace as a symbol of his prominence. This draw him into conflict with Baal,
who was seeking permission from El to build a palace. Yamm was later
defeated by Baal. In the Hebrew Bible, God was attributed with victory over
Ltn, Leviathan (Curtis 115). The creature symbolized the Red Sea in the Old
Testament and Satan in the New Testament (Oldenburg 34).
Ps. 74:13 You divided the sea by your might; you broke the heads of the
dragons in the waters.
Ps. 74:14 You crushed the heads of Leviathan; you gave him as food for the
creatures of the wilderness.
Rev. 12:3 Then another portent appeared in heaven: a great red dragon,
with seven heads and ten horns, and seven diadems on his heads.
Rev. 12:9 The great dragon...called the Devil and Satan....
f. V AB D: 38 Crushed I not El's Belov'd Yamm?
Destroyed I not El's Flood Rabbim?
Did I not, pray, muzzle the Dragon?
I did crush the crooked serpent,
Shalyat the seven-headed;
In The Ugarit Yamm represents chaos and the forces if the ocean
(Craigie 63) and the rivers. So does it appear in the Hebrew tradition.
There were also remarkable similarities found in the Babylonian Creation
Story, as well as other Eastern myths.(Craigie 62)
I. 1. When the heaven (-gods) above were as yet uncreated,
The earth (-gods) below not yet brought into being,
Alone there existed primordial Apsu (the great "male" ocean, the source of
lakes (Thomas 14) ) who engendered them, Only Mummu, and Taimat who brought
all of them forth. 5. Their waters could mix together in a single stream,
Unrestricted by reed-beds, unimpeded by marsh :
For, since none of the gods had at this time appeared,
these had not yet been formed, or been with destinies decreed.
9. In the depths of their waters the gods were created:
(The opening chapters of "The Babylonian Epic of Creation", found in
Documents from Old Testament Times, edited by D. Winton Thomas: 1958)
In the above myth as with most Eastern creation myths, there was the
primordial chaotic waters followed by an emergence of an ordered world
(Craigei 63). Similarly was the creation in the Bible, God bringing Earth
from being in "tohu" and "bohu".
Gen. 1:2 the earth was a formless void and darkness covered the face of
the deep, while a wind from God swept over the face of the waters
Baal was another high profile deity within the Canaanite literature.
There is only one passage that suggests that Baal was a son of El. But the
are many passages that suggest that he was the son of Dagon, though Dagon
has no part in the Ugarit texts. Baal may have been an outside deity that
slowly became a Ugarit deity. There is a lot of opposition between Baal and
El's family. Baal was possibly a fertility deity. He obtains his position
amongst the other gods through conflict and his fertility powers. (Curtis
86) Baal's victory symbolizes order's conquest over chaos (Craigei 63).
Festivals and ceremonies surrounding this myth would have been to ensure
lifegiving rains in due season and in due measure (Curtis 103).
Baal is often refered to as victor, prince king, judge, most high, lord
of earth, and rider of the clouds. Similar attributes were given to God in
the Old Testament. Even the more obscure attributes as the "rider of the
clouds".
Ps. 68:4 Sing to God, sing praises to his name; lift up a song to him who
rides upon the clouds his name is the LORD be exultant before him.
Ps. 104:3 you set the beams of your chambers on the waters, you make the
clouds your chariot, you ride on the wings of the wind,
Such imagery would also resurfaces in much later writings as the New
Testament. This was also the image of the ascension and descension of
Christ.
Matt. 24:30 Then the sign of the Son of Man will appear in heaven, and
then all the tribes of the earth will mourn, and they will see the Son of
Man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory.
Mark 13:26 and Luke 21:27 Then they will see the Son of Man coming in
clouds with great power and glory.
Rev. 1:7 Look! He is coming with the clouds; every eye will see him, even
those who pierced him; and on his account all the tribes of the earth will
wail. So it is to be. Amen.
Anat was Baal's sister. She was a virgin goddess of war that was very
often associated with Baal (Greenfield 549). Oddly, Baal was associated more
with Athirat (Ashirah) or with Athtarat (Ashtorath) in the Old Testament, a
goddess who does not play a dominant role in the Ugaritic texts.
One of the strongest similarities in the myths of the two traditions
was in the battle with Leviathan. This myth reflects a sense of continuity
between the two cultures. In the Ugarit, it is an epic tale of Baal's
triumph over the god of the sea, Yamm or Ltn, and his brother the god of
death, Mot. This epic tale appears to have reflected seasonal changes. But
this theme appears to have continued into the Hebrew tradition. This is
especially true in the Revelation of the Apostle John.
In the Apocalypse of John the Ugarit epic survives as Christ taking the
role of Baal and His conquests over Satan, as a Leviathan.
Rev. 12:3 Then another portent appeared in heaven: a great red dragon,
with seven heads and ten horns, and seven diadems on his heads.
Rev. 12:9 The great dragon was thrown down, that ancient serpent, who is
called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world he was thrown
down to the earth, and his angels were thrown down with him.
Once Satan was defeated, there was no more sin. Since the wages for sin
equals death, Rom. 6:23, hence death was defeated.
Rev. 20:13 And the sea gave up the dead that were in it, Death and Hades
gave up the dead that were in them, and all were judged according to what
they had done.
Rev. 20:14 Then Death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. This is
the second death, the lake of fire;
Rev. 21:4 he will wipe every tear from their eyes. Death will be no more;
mourning and crying and pain will be no more, for the first things have
passed away.
The utter destruction of Death in the Christian epic is not too dissimilar
to the Ugarit equivalent. They both are even destroyed with the use of fire.
h. I AB (ii):30-40
Then Anath the Lass draws nigh him
Like the heart of a ewe for her lamb...
She siezes the Godly Mot-
With sword she doth cleave him.
With fan she doth winnow him-
with fire she doth burn him.
With hand-mill she grinds him-
In the field she doth sow him.
Birds eat his remnants,
consuming his portions,...
(later Mot was revived)
Nasty blows to the head were also parts of both, the Ugarit and Christian
tales.
(2) III AB A: 22 It strikes the pate of Prince Yamm,
Between the eyes of Judge Nahar.
Yamm collapses,
Rev. 13:3 One of its heads seemed to have received a death-blow, but its
mortal wound had been healed. In amazement the whole earth followed the
beast.
Yamm apparently recovers from his blow and is confined to the seas, since he
is mentioned later in that epic (ANAT 131). The Beast in Revelations also
recovers from a fatal blow to the head.
The Church in the Book of Revelations held the role of the virgin
goddess of war, Anath. In the Christian epic, the Church supplies 144
thousand virgin warriors to fight in Armageddon and was commonly described
as a woman.
Rev. 14:3 and they sing a new song before the throne and before the four
living creatures and before the elders. No one could learn that song except
the one hundred forty-four thousand who have been redeemed from the earth.
Rev. 14:4 It is these who have not defiled themselves with women, for they
are virgins; these follow the Lamb wherever he goes. They have been redeemed
from humankind as first fruits for God and the Lamb,
Rev. 12:14 But the woman was given the two wings of the great eagle, so
that she could fly from the serpent into the wilderness, to her place where
she is nourished for a time, and times, and half a time.
There were many themes in common in the New Testament literature and
the Ugarit, including major cosmic changes once the battle with the Serpent
was over. In Christian theology the world is now in chaos. And in both the
Ugarit and Revelations the defeat of the monster reflects a return or an
establishment of order to the universe, a deliverance. Such similarities
were not as strong in the Old Testament. But rather they were underplayed.
Perhaps due to the lack of an adversary to God in Old Testament theology,
such as the Christian concept of Satan. But there were some similarities. In
Isaiah, as in the Ugarit, once Ltn was destroyed that there would be a sort
of cosmic restoration as in Revelation's. But in the Old Testament, Ltn was
not responsible for global chaos as in the Ugarit.
Isa. 27:1 On that day the LORD with his cruel and great and strong sword
will punish Leviathan the fleeing serpent, Leviathan the twisting serpent,
and he will kill the dragon that is in the sea.
27:2 On that day: A pleasant vineyard, sing about it!
Isa. 27:6 In days to come Jacob shall take root, Israel shall blossom and
put forth shoots, and fill the whole world with fruit.
Isa. 27:9 Therefore by this the guilt of Jacob will be expiated, and this
will be the full fruit of the removal of his sin:
f. V AB D:39 Did I not pray, muzzle the Dragon?
I did crush the crooked serpent,
Shalyat the seven-headed
D:65 "I'll take war away from the earth,
Banish all strife from the soil,
Pour peace into earth's very bowels,
Rev. 21:1 Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth; for the first heaven
and the first earth had passed away, and the sea (Yamm vanquished?) was no
more.
But in the Old Testament Leviathan remained dominantly one of God's
creatures, a simple creation (Curtis 115).
Job 3:8 Let those curse it who curse the Sea, those who are skilled to
rouse up Leviathan.
Job 41:1 Can you draw out Leviathan with a fishhook, or press down its
tongue with a cord?
Ps. 74:14 You crushed the heads of Leviathan; you gave him as food for the
creatures of the wilderness.
Ps. 104:26 There go the ships, and Leviathan that you formed to sport in
it.
2Esd. 6:49 Then you kept in existence two living creatures; the one you
called Behemoth and the name of the other Leviathan.
2Esd. 6:52 but to Leviathan you gave the seventh part, the watery part;
and you have kept them to be eaten by whom you wish, and when you wish.
Certainly, the evasion of the myth of Ltn in the Old Testament was an
act of a very monotheistic editor and authors. But the persistence of the
myth in both the New Testament and Isaiah may have reflected the myth's
persistence in the folk religion and superstitions of the people in one form
or another. This is also supported by the fact that many general motifs
remained very prominent in the Old Testament literature, such as with Sheol
and Mot. And those not discused in this paper as resurrection, the constant
references to the temple and footstools, and so on. There has even been
speculation that certain psalms were originally used to praise Baal. And
that the Hebrew God was transposed upon such a psalm so as to praise God.
(Curtis 109). To conclude this paper, the literary similarities are
extensive between the Ugarit and the Biblical traditions. It would be easy
to assume that he early Hebrews were Canaanites that had accepted monotheism
and incorporated their old folk beliefs into that monotheism. This would
have been especially true in their poetry, since abstract thought could very
easily manipulate mythic themes to express theological concepts of
monotheism.
Bibliography and Works Cited
1. Alter, Robert. The Art of Biblical Poetry. Basic Books, 1985.
2. Coogan, Michael David. Stories From Ancient Canaan. Louisville:
The Westminster Press, 1978.
3. Craigie, Peter C. Ugarit and the Old Testament. Grand Rapids:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1983.
4. Curtis, Adrian. Cities of the Biblical World: Ugarit (Ras Shamra).
Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1985.
5. Gevirtz, Stanley. Patterns in the Early Poetry of Israel. Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1963.
6. Ginsberg, H.L. "The Ugarit Texts and Textual Criticism", Journal of
Biblical Literature. June 1943.
7. Greenfield, Jonas C. "The Hebrew Bible and Canaanite Literature",
The Literary Guide to the Bible. Robert Alter and Frank
Kermode eds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987.
8. Oldenburg, Ulf. The Conflict Between El and Ba'al in Canaanite
Religion. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1969.
9. Pritchard, James B. Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1955.
10. Thomas, D. Winton, ed. Documents from Old Testament Times.
London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1958.
Themes and Style in Common:
Ugarit and Biblical Poetry
by: Bradley Harrison
Dr. Waldman
Biblical Poetry
Bible 40107
Gratz College
Spring 1994
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