Chapter 7
Aviation

		Paragraphs
Section I.	General	176-181
II.	Air operations preliminary to landing	182-184
III.	Air operations during debarkation	185-187
IV.	Air operations during approach to beach	188-192
V.	Air operations during advance inland	193-194

Section I
General

176. Advance Air Bases.--

     1. When the theater of operations is beyond the operating radius of land-based aircraft, the seizure of an advance air base prior to landing is always desirable and often mandatory. Carrier-based aircraft, even with great numerical superiority, are at a serious disadvantage compared to land-based aircraft because of the limited number and vulnerability of airplane carriers. An advance airbase also has the advantage of permitting the early operation of Army aircraft.

     2. The seizure of an advance air base is ordinarily the function of the Navy, but is some situations it constitutes a separate landing operation for which the necessary landing force is provided by the Army.

     3. Air transported troops may be used for the seizure of an advance air base within operating radius of friendly flying fields. Consideration should be given to dispatch of air transported troops from carriers when operations from land-based fields are impracticable due to distance. For operations of this character see FM 100-5.

177. Air Superiority.--

     1. Whether or not an advance air base has been secured, local air superiority is essential to the success of a landing operation. Troop transports and troops in small boats offer concentrated targets for hostile aircraft and are extremely vulnerable to bombing and gas attacks. Even a small opposing air force skillfully handled and not effectively neutralized may disrupt the landing and force a

withdrawal. It is therefore essential that hostile combat aviation capable of intervening during the landing operations be destroyed or neutralized prior to the approach of the transports and supporting naval units within the transport area. Subsequently, supporting aviation must be prepared to furnish protection against air attacks during the critical landing phase.
2. Operations to neutralize the defending air forces include destruction of airdromes and planes on the ground and aerial combat. The enemy will, if possible, utilize a large number of landing fields, camouflage will be employed to the maximum to protect his establishments, and dummy planes will be displayed, actual planes being widely separated and camouflaged. Thus, thorough reconnaissance is necessary before successful attacks can be launched. To render enemy landing fields unusable requires extensive operations and a heavy expenditure of bombs. See FM 1-10 [Tactics and Techniques of Air Attack] and Joint Action of the Army and the Navy.
178. Air Support.--

     1. Responsibility for air support and for control of the air within the zone of the proposed operation usually rests initially with the naval aviation of the attack force until such time as adequate support is practicable by land-based aviation of the landing force. Any available aircraft of the landing force participates. Naval aviation is relieved progressively by aircraft of the landing force as soon as facilities for their operation can be provided.

     2. Pilots, observers, and other aviation personnel of the Army may be utilized by the Navy when naval planes are engaged in land reconnaissance, attack in support of ground operations, and similar missions. When this is envisaged, it must be appreciated that special training of Army personnel will be necessary because of differences in naval types of aircraft and in naval procedure.

     3. The closest cooperation is required between air units, the supported troops, and the naval fire support group.

179. Composition of Air Force.--In general, the circumstances affecting the composition of the air force lie between the following two extremes: the most favorable situation, which is that permitting employment of all types of Army aviation from adequate, well-located land bases throughout

the operation; and the most disadvantageous situation, which makes necessary the employment of naval aviation alone in support of the landing and the initial advance. in any situation, however, the air force should be composed of the classes of aviation which can best accomplish the following missions:
First, gain and maintain local air superiority.
Second, close support the landing force.
Third, furnish necessary reconnaissance and observation, including photographic missions.
180. Air Reconnaissance.--Information regarding the hostile defenses, and the number and suitability of landing beaches and approaches thereto may prove more essential to the success of the landing than benefits derived from attempted surprise without this knowledge. Strategical surprise against an alert enemy is exceedingly difficult to obtain. Air and surface scouting by enemy air forces will probably result in early discovery of the approaching expedition. While it is seldom possible to conduct intensive distant aerial reconnaissance without sacrifice of strategical surprise, it is often feasible to include aerial reconnaissance missions among the general air operations being carried out in the theater in such manner that the enemy will be unable to derive any definite conclusions therefrom. Prior to the landing, tactical reconnaissance of beaches and contiguous areas inland is conducted over a broad front, and concentration of air activities over the particular sectors where landings are planned is carefully avoided. Marked aerial activity over several areas may, in fact, be used as a demonstration or a feint and thereby aid in gaining tactical surprise. Because of the ability of air missions to cover extensive areas or numerous beaches, aerial reconnaissance and photography provided satisfactory means of obtaining general information without sacrificing tactical surprise. See FM 1-20 [Tactics and Techniques of Air Reconnaissance and Observation].

181. Transportation of Aircraft.--

     1. Because a landing requires the maximum employment of available aviation, every effort is made to provide for the early participation of Army aircraft. Where aircraft can fly the entire distance from their home base to the scene of the landing, or where advance air bases have been secured, few serious problems are involved.

2. When land bases are lacking, carriers may be assigned for use of the landing force aircraft; failing this, the airplanes may be assigned to the fleet carriers. If carrier space does not permit the adoption of either of these plans, the airplanes may be stowed aboard carriers for initial launching only. Another plan is to carry airplanes fully set up on auxiliary vessels, launching to be effected by catapulting or from specially constructed take-off platform. A less desirable alternative is to use transports which permit airplanes to be stowed above and below decks partially set up. These airplanes can be transferred to carriers for final assembly and launching. Least desirable is the method of transporting airplanes knocked down and crated. Crated aircraft are cumbersome, difficult to put into operation, and cannot be made ready for use until al considerable beachhead or advance air base has been gained.

Section II
Air Operations Preliminary to Landing

182. Reconnaissance.--Aerial reconnaissance is made when the necessity for information of terrain, hydrographic conditions, enemy defensive measures, and suitability of beaches outweighs considerations of surprise. When aerial reconnaissance is made, it is so conducted that it will serve to confuse the hostile defenders as to the probable points of landing. Air reconnaissance by troop commanders id desirable.

183. Photography.--

     1. Air photographs and mosaics, carefully studied, are of assistance in drawing up final plans for the operation. Airplanes flying at high altitudes are able under favorable conditions to obtain the required data without sacrificing tactical surprise.

     2. Air photographs are particularly useful in determining the best channels of approach to beaches, the location and character of defensive works and installations, presence of obstacles, the configuration of the ground at the beaches, and the amount of surf to be encountered. Some indication of depth of water and underwater obstructions is also gained by comparing views taken at low and high tides.

     3. Oblique photographs, particularly those taken from seaward, are valuable to boat group officers in identifying

beaches, to troop commanders in planning operations on shore, and to gunnery officers in selecting targets and aiming points and planning the gunfire support.
184. Reduction of Hostile Defenses.--Prior to landing, unless secrecy is the primary consideration, advantage must be taken of every opportunity to deliver air attacks on the hostile defenses. Aircraft, airdromes, aviation matériel, fortifications, gun emplacements, communication and transportation centers, supply bases, and troop movements and concentrations are appropriate targets.

Section III
Air Operations During Debarkation

185. Protection of Transport Area.--

     1. Protection is furnished to the vessels of the attack force during debarkation into small boats by denying hostile aviation access to the landing area. Neutralization is obtained by the use of pursuit aviation and the coordinated support of the antiaircraft defenses, and by attacking hostile aircraft on the ground.

     2. Submarines are an additional menace during debarkation. Employment of scouting planes equipped with bombs for attacking submarines reduces this hazard. Battleship and cruiser aircraft not required for gunnery observation are also employed to establish an air patrol.

     3. In planning the time of arrival in the transport area, consideration is given to the disadvantages of operating aircraft during darkness. It is extremely difficult to provide proper air support for a night landing in the presence of an alert hostile air force because the transport area can be illuminated by flares and effectively bombed by the defenders.

186. Reconnaissance.--Intensive and continuous reconnaissance of hostile defenses and shore establishments is initiated prior to or simultaneously with the debarkation, or as soon thereafter as visibility permits. Beach defenses, artillery positions, airdromes, and the locations of enemy general reserves are reconnoitered intensively. Definite knowledge of the enemy dispositions gained at this time will exercise a material effect on the later employment of aviation.

187. Attacks on Shore Objectives.--During debarkation of leading landing groups some aircraft may supplement naval gunfire on the beach defenses while others are utilized against airdromes and any movement of enemy reserves.

Section IV
Air Operations During Approach to Beach

188. General Support.--The vulnerability of troops and supplies during the period when small boats are en route to shore makes it imperative that protection against air attack be positive and continuous at this time. Pursuit airplanes should operate to destroy or neutralize enemy aircraft and to protect friendly aviation operating in the area.

189. Smoke Screens.--

     1. Use.--

        1. Smoke laid and maintained by airplanes may conceal the approach of the landing boats and reduce the effectiveness of hostile fire. If employed, it is maintained in sufficient quantities to blind the beach defenses and observation posts until the leading units have disembarked from the small boats and have gained the beach.

        2. Smoke is extremely difficult for airplanes to lay properly, usually requires cessation of fire from ships while it is being laid unless placed by means of smoke bombs. Smoke deprives the attacker of observation of the shore, increases the difficulties of controlling boats, interferes with visual and pyrotechnic signals, and takes airplanes from other tasks. Smoke is not used on or near the beach when an adequate number of naval vessels employing direct fire are available, as the observed fire of these vessels constitutes a better protection from enemy fire than smoke.

     2. Laying.--

        1. In general, smoke is laid near the shore, the ideal being reached when a continuous blanket is maintained at the beach line. Screens may be laid successively ahead of the advancing boats, but has the disadvantage of exposing unduly the smoke airplanes to antiaircraft fire at close range, and with an onshore breeze requires a large number of planes.

        2. In laying smoke, the direction and velocity of the wind must be considered and the points of initiation of the screen as well as the course of the airplane must be calculated.

The duration of the screen, its drift during its period of usefulness, the frequency of repetition, and its density during varying weather conditions are factors requiring consideration. Smoke may be laid by means of wing tanks or by bombs. The duration of a smoke screen is dependent upon meteorological conditions; with high humidity and no wind, duration may be for a considerable period. The exact time for initiating a smoke screen should be left to the pilots charged with the work. The pilot must know the hour boats are scheduled to land, but a schedule prescribing the exact hour and minute of laying the first screen is not advisable.
190. Guide Airplanes.--

     1. Guide airplanes are assigned to direct assault battalions to their designated beaches during a daylight landing when conditions make accurate navigation of boat groups impossible. When the beaches are not contiguous, one airplane should be furnished for each beach. Identification of the plane is established by any convenient means such as the use of streamers.

     2. Several methods of operating a guide airplane are feasible. One method involves flying continuously in rear of the boat unit being guided. When the course must be changed in order to land on the assigned beach, the airplane flies to the guide boat and signals the necessary change in direction by dipping the right or left wing. Another method is to have the airplane fly at low altitude from the center of the boat group toward the designated beach and return, thus indicating the proper course. This method involves considerable danger to the aircraft from naval gunfire and fire from beach defenses.

191. Support When Ship Gunfire Lifts.--Overhead ship gunfire lifts when the leading boats are 1,000 yards or more offshore. At this time the advancing boats must receiving intensive support from aviation units. Combat airplanes, employing guns and fragmentation bombs, neutralize beach defenses, antiboat guns, artillery, reserves, and located searchlights. A strong aviation striking force is provided for employment at this time. The time schedule for its operations is prepared by the landing force commander and must be coordinated with the naval forces. Unless ship gunfire ceases during the aircraft attacks, bombing and aircraft gunfire must be conducted at safe altitudes.

192. Reconnaissance.--Air reconnaissance of enemy dispositions should be continuous throughout the actual landing, particular attention being paid to enemy troop movements and the location of reserves. If only naval airplanes are available during this phase, arrangements should be made for Army observers and liaison officers to make the necessary flights.

Section V
Air Operations During Advance Inland

193. Support Near Shore Line.--

     1. Field artillery is not landed until some ground in the vicinity of the beach has been gained. Meanwhile the fire from ships will be falling several hundred yards in advance of the troops. Therefore aircraft must continue to supplement naval gunfire by providing intense close support for the troops until field artillery support can be furnished. the missions assigned to aircraft in paragraph 191 should continue in effect, particular attention being paid to the protection of the flanks of advancing troops.

     2. When hostile airplanes are present, pursuit airplanes continue the mission of clearing the air. During the early stages of the advance inland a large part of the air force is employed in missions usually assigned field artillery.

194. Support After Landing of Field Artillery.--

     1. As the seizure of the terrain progresses and field artillery comes into action, the employment of aviation reverts to the normal practices of land warfare, except that ships of the attack force and ship-to-shore lines of communication continue to receive adequate protection.

     2. During operations after field artillery support is available, duties assigned to the various classes of the air component include--

        1. Observation units furnish observation and reconnaissance, and provide airplanes for battle missions.

        2. Light and medium bombardment units continue close support of the infantry; destroy, immobilize, or delay hostile reserves; attack aircraft on the ground; and neutralize antiaircraft defenses.

3. Pursuit units furnish general and special support over the sea and land area occupied by the landing force, transports, and supporting vessels, and provide protective escorts.

4. Heavy and medium bombardment units destroy hostile airdromes and aircraft on the ground, heavy artillery, lines of communication, transportation and supply centers, and other key installations.

5. Transport and other suitable aircraft are utilized to carry parachutist or other air landing troops to operate against selected objectives.

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