Chapter 9
Field Artillery, Antiaircraft Protection, Tank and Engineer Units, and Chemicals

		Paragraphs
Section I.	Field artillery	208-211
II.	Antiaircraft protection	212-215
III.	Tank units	216-221
IV.	Engineer units	222
V.	Chemicals	223-230

Section I
Field Artillery

208. Employment of Field Artillery.--The employment of field artillery in the early stages of a landing operation differs from its employment in ordinary land operations in the following essential features:

     1. In ordinary land operations field artillery, from the beginning executes preparatory and supporting fires. In a landing operation, preparatory and supporting fires are executed by naval guns until field artillery is ashore and is prepared to reinforce the ship fire or take over certain fire missions.

     2. Due to difficulties in transporting and landing guns and ammunition, the amount of field artillery available in a landing operation is usually less than in a land operation on a corresponding scale. This factor may require ship guns to continue on certain fire missions during all or a large part of the operation. Coordination of fire of field artillery and ship guns is required.

     3. Normally, in a landing operation field artillery must reach the beach before it can go into action. This factor, together with the necessity of reinforcing or relieving naval guns at the earliest possible time, makes it necessary to employ field artillery with great boldness. It is sometimes practicable to emplace field artillery weapons on old cargo vessels, fire from such vessels grounded off shore being employed to supplement ship gunfire in close support during the early stages of the operation.

4. In offensive operations on land, field artillery coordinates its fire with the advance of the infantry from the beginning of the attack. IN a landing operation, the field artillery support begins after the attack is well under way. Liaison with the front line troops is continuous in order that close supporting fires may be delivered as soon as batteries are prepared to fire.

5. Because of the impracticability of exercising centralized control, field artillery batteries are usually attached to infantry units during the initial phases of a landing operation. This makes difficult the concentration of fire of a number of batteries on a designated objective. As soon as the situation on shore permits, field artillery is placed under centralized control.

6. In the early stages of a landing operation, movement of weapons, equipment, and ammunition, and the laying of wire is largely by hand.
209. Types and Landing Characteristics of Field Artillery.--

     1. The 75-mm pack howitzer is especially suitable for use in landing operations. It can be broken down into loads which may be debarked from transports by manpower, transported in small boats, and landed and moved forward on shore by hand. Assembled, it weighs approximately 1,300 pounds.

     2. Other types of light field artillery which may be employed are: 75-mm field howitzer, weight approximately 2,100 pounds; 75-mm gun, weight approximately 2,700 to 3,900 pounds, depending on its model; and 105-mm howitzer, weight 4,300 pounds. Any of these weapons can be landed from a 50-foot motor launch equipped with boat rig A and ramp.

     3. Since the relatively heavy weights limit hand displacement of light artillery, light-weight tractors, animals, or suitable trucks should be made available on the beach as soon as practicable.

     4. If 75-mm pack artillery is not available or suitable motor vehicles for movement or other light artillery cannot be made available promptly on the beach, consideration should be given to providing additional 81-mm mortars in each combat team to furnish initial support during the early phases of combat ashore.

5. The 155-mm howitzer, weight about 9,000 pounds, and the 155-mm gun, weight approximately 30,000 pounds, require artillery lighters or barges to transport and land them on an open beach.
210. Organization for Landing.--

     1. It is desirable that complete gun sections are debarked in separate boats, and that the boats transporting a light artillery battery are organized into a boat division. This permits attaching batteries to infantry nits or landing the artillery battalion as a unit. The artillery boat divisions, after leaving the line of departure, may cruise independently of those carrying the infantry and land when the beach is reasonably secure from direct fire.

     2. Artillery liaison details are transported in the same boats as the headquarters of the infantry unit they support.

     3. Reconnaissance details landed in the leading wave select and mark the points for landing, routes from the beach, firing positions, and observation posts, and install necessary signal communication prior to arrival of gun sections. Reconnaissance details are usually provided separate boats to permit them to guide waiting artillery boats after decision has been made as to the point and time of landing.

     4. The medium and heavy field artillery are not landed until suitable facilities and protection are available ashore. Lighters, barges, or large boats transporting artillery will usually operate separately.

211. Ammunition Supply.--At least two-thirds of a unit of fire is landed with each battery and the remaining third should follow within 1 hour. Each gun section should have its quota loaded with it in the same boat. Beach and shore party personnel unload the ammunition on the beach so that battery personnel may be utilized for placing guns into action promptly. The ammunition supply plan allows for heavy losses en route and ashore.

Section II
Antiaircraft Protection

212. General.--

     1. Troops on transports, in small boats, and on the beaches provide concentrated targets for hostile aviation and are extremely vulnerable to aircraft gunfire, bombing,

and chemical attack. For this reason, control of the air in the area of and during landing operations is essential and constitutes the best defense against possible disastrous interference by enemy aircraft. Supporting aviation must therefore be prepared to furnish adequate protection against hostile air attacks during the critical phases of debarkation and the subsequent movement ashore in small boats.
2. To supplement the protection afforded by friendly aviation and to provide protection against low-flying hostile aircraft, each combat team should contain a detachment of antiaircraft automatic weapons.

3. Provision should be made for appropriate weapons on each boat and for mounting and manning of such boat guns as soon as the boats are lowered. Designated individuals in each boat should be detailed to look out for and warn of the approach of hostile aircraft. Boat guns and other designated weapons on each boat open fire on attacking aircraft without waiting for orders. Riflemen in the boats should fire only when directed.

4. Control vessels and such other ships as may be designated should protect the landing units from hostile aircraft.
213. Employment of Antiaircraft Units.--

     1. To supplement the protection afforded by antiaircraft automatic weapons with the combat teams, plans should provide for the landing of additional antiaircraft automatic weapons units as soon as practicable after the advance from the beach has begun. Weapons are manhandled, their transportation being landed later with other heavy equipment.

     2. In addition to execution of antiaircraft missions to protect beach installations and the landing of succeeding troops, supplies, and equipment, the small caliber antiaircraft weapons and antiaircraft artillery assist in antimechanized defense when such assistance does not interfere with its primary mission of defense against hostile aircraft. Antiaircraft gun units, once established on shore, are employed as in other land operations. Their employment must be closely coordinated with the naval antiaircraft guns and with the operation of friendly aviation.

214. Landing of Units.--With the exception of the antiaircraft automatic weapon units landed with leading units,

the preparation of antiaircraft artillery units for debarkation will not being until most of the infantry and light artillery are unloaded. The preparation for debarkation is similar to that explained for light artillery, except that the maintenance of an accurate time schedule is not as important. Boats and lighters carrying antiaircraft gun units may proceed to and from the beaches independently.
215. Ammunition Supply.--Plans should provide for approximately one unit of fire to accompany each antiaircraft automatic weapon detachment sent ashore with the combat teams. For antiaircraft units landed later, the same considerations and procedure apply as previously outlined for the supply of artillery ammunition.

Section III
Tank Units

216. Employment.--

     1. Tank units are particularly valuable in a landing operation. They are effective against beach defense--machine guns and barbed wire. They assist the advance of assault units during the period when field artillery support is lacking, and are used in later phases in attacks against especially stubborn resistance and counterattacks. Their employment is dependent upon suitable landing boats and terrain.

     2. 1. Tank units should be concentrated against important objectives. Plans for the employment of tank units should be based on initial cooperation with combat aviation and other ground troops to disrupt or destroy enemy installations, light artillery, and reserves which are most dangerous to a successful landing.

        2. In order to provide immediate assistance to the leading troops ashore, tank units should be attached initially to the combat teams at the rate of not less than one platoon to each. However, as soon as the advance from the beach has progressed sufficiently to gain freedom of maneuver, tank units should revert to control of higher commanders in order to permit mass employment.

217. Methods of Landing.--When amphibian tanks are not available, special self-propelled tank lighters able to accompany fast landing boats are the best means for landing tanks.

The tanks are driven ashore rapidly under their own power as soon as the lighters are beached. Tanks may be landed from small shallow draft lighters towed by motor launches. They may also be landed from 50-foot standard motor launches, with boat rig A and ramp. However, this method is much less desirable since it requires considerable time for landing the tanks, necessitates accomplishment under cover of other troops, and prevents the tanks from being available for combat during the critical period when their assistance would be most valuable. [NOTE: Obviously many sections of this manual have not been updated to reflect the development and availability of the specialized landing craft developed during the war, especially the LCT and LST. -- HyperWar]
218. Time of Landing.--Tanks should be landed with the leading troops in order to be able to provide immediate assistance for the initial advance. If amphibian armored vehicles or self-propelled tank lighters are available and landing conditions favorable, tanks are assigned to leading waves. When practicable tank weapons supplement the fire of boat guns. When towed lighters or standard boats are used or when landing conditions are uncertain, tank units should be in the second or succeeding waves.

219. Organization for Landing.--

     1. Initially, boats or lighters transporting a tank platoon are organized into a separate boat division which normally operates as a unit. Individual tank boats or lighters may later be assigned to boat divisions transporting rifle units, if speed and type of boats, landing conditions, routes of advance, proposed employment, or similar considerations make such action desirable or necessary.

     2. Boats and lighters transporting tanks are included in the boat assignment table and landing diagram of the boat group transporting the combat team which the tanks are assigned (see 106 and 107).

220. Debarkation of Tanks and Lighters.--Debarkation of tanks is facilitated if they are stowed in several holds. Prior to the hours set for lowering tank boats or lighters, tanks are run under the hatches, slings hooked on, gasoline tanks filled, engines tested, and the tanks made ready for action.

221. Landing.--For tanks transported on boats or lighters, engines are started when well offshore, and all preparations are made for landing with the maximum possible speed.

Section IV
Engineer Units

222. Engineers With Landing Forces.--

     1. Because of the great need for engineer troops in landing operations, each combat team will comprise a unit of combat engineers ordinarily from divisional or similar engineer unit. The engineer component of the shore parties should be provided preferably from other than division engineer organizations.

     2. For detailed discussion of the function of engineers in support of landing operations, see section VI, chapter 10, and FM 5-5.

Section V
Chemicals

NOTE: the existence of this section (or, for that matter, any of the Field Manuals in the FM 3-## series) should not be misinterpreted to imply the endorsement of, or the intent to use, chemical warfare. Although signed in 1925, the Geneva Protocol banning the use of poisonous and asphyxiating gases was not ratified by Congress until 1975; thus, military leaders had to provide for all contingencies. In the event it became necessary to use chemical weapons, doctrine for their effective employment would be preferable to "making it up as you go along" under the stress of combat. --HyperWar

223. Chemical Agents.--Chemical agents of all classes may be used or encountered in landing operations.

224. Employment.--

     1. Persistent agents are not laid on any area which may later be necessary to the landing force for its operation. Subject to these restrictions, aircraft using chemicals may be employed before, during, and after the ship-to-shore movement of troops for such tasks as--

        1. Denial of airdromes and landing fields to the enemy.

        2. Silencing of shore batteries, particularly large caliber rungs, mortars, and antiaircraft batteries.

        3. Extension of deep supporting fires from ship guns by bombing and spraying areas known to be occupied by the enemy.

        4. Attacks against enemy reserves.

        5. Denial to the enemy of bridges, fords, passes, roads, and critical areas.

        6. Production of casualties, and the denial of areas to the enemy by firing dry brush, canefields, and grass with incendiary bombs.

     2. If chemical projectiles are available for naval guns, nonpersistent tear and irritant smoke shells may be employed at the beginning of a bombardment for harassment of personnel. Persistent agents may be used to advantage against large caliber, coast artillery gun positions, and isolated areas not needed later for the operation of the landing force.

225. Protection.--

     1. Individual.--

        1. Employment of all types of chemicals by the defender is particularly applicable

in a landing operation. This employment may include spraying of transports and small boats, bombing with white phosphorus; releasing clouds from the shoreline against landing boats; contamination of beaches, islands, peninsulas, and adjacent waters, and interior areas by a persistent agent; and employment of all types of agents against the beachhead following a successful landing.
2. Protective measures must receive consideration in the planning of any ship-to-shore movement. Gas masks are issued to all personnel and protective clothing, gloves, and shoes should be provided for those who are most likely to be exposed to liquid spray and to those detailed for decontamination work.
2. Collective.--In addition to individual protection, measures must be taken for group or collective protection. These measures include reconnaissance, planning the scheme of maneuver to avoid chemicals, general organization for protection, special protection of men and mat&eacut;riel in boats, and decontamination of beaches and routes inland. (See FM 21-40).
226. Reconnaissance.--Effort is made to ascertain by preliminary reconnaissance the enemy's utilization of chemicals so that the most effective protective measures may be initiated in advance or the contaminated areas avoided.

227. Scheme of Maneuver.--In planning the scheme of maneuver effort is made to avoid areas known or suspected of being contaminated or which are likely to be subjected to gas attack. Lacking definite information, open beaches and high, open, wind-blown terrain are safest; conversely, protected beaches, wooded areas, ravines, hollows, and defiles are most favorable for the effective use of chemicals by the defender.

228. General Organization.--Officer and noncommissioned officers trained in chemical warfare take charge of chemical warfare protective matériel and give technical advice. Gas sentries are posted whenever there is likelihood of a chemical attack. Standing orders covering procedure for protection against chemical attacks are issued. Alarm systems are installed. Materials for decontamination are kept available for use in all ships and boats, and instructions

for their use are disseminated to all concerned. Provision is made for prompt treatment of gas casualties.
229. Protection of Men and Matériel in Boats.--Protective measures against chemical attacks for men and mat&eacut;eriel in small boats include protective covering for boats, warning of attack by gas sentries, antiaircraft fire, and decontamination means. close-fitting tarpaulins of oilcloth or canvas are included in the equipment of each boat to protect the occupants from liquid spray. When possible, this covering is rolled up with one edge made fast behind the boat gunners so that it can be spread quickly to the rear over the heads of the troops. All equipment and munitions not likely to be used until the boat reaches the beach are covered with separate mustardproof coverings. Snug-fitting canvas tarpaulins while not mustardproof offer considerable protection. All food not in airtight containers is subject to contamination. At least one gas sentry is detailed in each boat to watch for and give warning of a chemical attack, and sufficient men are assigned to adjust the tarpaulin covering on short notice. Each boat is supplied with a quantity of decontamination material and personnel instructed in its use. Decontamination measures must not be allowed to interfere with the operation of boats or the fire of weapons.

230. Decontamination of Beaches and Routes Inland.--When small boats approach the beach, effort is made to avoid pools or globules of oily liquid vesicant discovered floating on the surface of the water. If it is necessary to land through contaminated water, the best protection is afforded by shallow draft landing boats which permit the troops to disembark directly onto the beach. Material such as chloride of lime must be provided for decontamination of vital positions on the beach, and men of the shore parties should be equipped with protective clothing to do this work. Although decontamination of large areas may be impracticable, decontamination of landing points, areas necessary for activities on the beach, and roads or trails leading inland to ungassed areas must b e effected without delay. large signs should be brought ashore to warn personnel of gassed areas and to indicate alternate routes. As soon as practicable after the landing, decontamination stations should be improvised for the purification of clothing and equipment.

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