(1195) Tue 26 May 92 12:14 Re: QUINOA QUINOA Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) has been grown for centuries in high altitude areas of Chile, Peru, and Bolivia. Quinua, a more native spelling of the common name, has also been used for the grain amaranth species, Amaranthus caudatus. Quinoa and amaranth, although of different botanical families, have similar characteristics, uses, and ancient history. Amaranth was more widely adapted and important than quinoa in ancient South America, but quinoa established its niche at high altitudes. Quinoa is used for flour, soup, breakfast cereal, and alcohol. Seed of some varieties have bitter saponin compounds which must be removed in soaking water before consumption; other varieties are saponin-free. The leaves are eaten as a leafy vegetable like spinach. Quinoa seed ranges from 12 to 18 percent protein, but the protein quality is better than that of grain crops like wheat. Like amaranth, it is high in lysine amino acid. Seed imported from South America and products containing it are sold as health foods at high prices in the United States. Related species are common lambsquarters weed (Chenopodium album L.), canahua (Chenopodium pallidicaute Aellen), and wormseed chenopodium ambrosioides L. anthelminticum. Canahua or canihua is shorter, more branched, and smaller seeded than quinoa. The seed is black and shatters when the plants are shaken. It is grown at higher altitudes, 12,000 to 14,000 feet, than quinoa in the semi-arid plateau of the Andes Mountains.Canahua is tolerant of frost and cool weather. It can germinate at 40 F, flower at 50 F, and mature seed at 60 F. Wormseed is grown for its oil, but acreage and markets in the United States are small. Wormseed oil is obtained by distillingthe entire plant although most of the oil is in the seeds. About 40 pounds of oil are obtained per ton of plant. The oil contains ascaridole that is used in worm medicines. Quinoa is mostly self-pollinated but cross-pollination occurs so isolation of about 650 feet is desirable for pure seed production. Quinoa was planted in mid-May at Rosemount. It emerged about June 1 and was attacked by fleabeetles and aphids which necessitated spraying. It grew about 2 feet tall but did not flower or produce seed. High summer temperatures at Rosemount probably caused it to become dormant. Cool temperatures at the high altitudes where it is grown allow various varieties to mature within a range of 80 to 150 days. The Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station is releasing an experimental yellow-seeded variety for production on about 50 acres in 1986. Agronomist D. L. Johnson estimates that the crop has a potential acreage of 6,000 in Colorado at elevations above7,000 feet. The new variety grows 3 to 4 feet tall, matures in 100 days, and resists shattering. It will be grown in rows 20 to 30 inches apart, irrigated, and harvested with a combine. Yields of 1,200 pounds per acre are expected. Varieties adapted to lower elevations and of white seed color are expected in the future. TEF OR TEFF Tef [Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) Trotter] has been a major grain crop in Ethiopia since antiquity. The crop is little grown outside of Ethiopia where it is called t'ef (tee-ef). The scientific name used to be Eragrostis abyssinica (jacq.) Link., in recognition of Ethiopia's old name, Abyssinia. White- and brown-seeded varieties are grown. The grain is ground into flour and used for unleavened bread since there is little gluten in the grain. Tef is a warm-season grass and a poor weed competitor until fully grown, so a high seeding rate is suggested for weed control (Table 1). Four introductions were tested at Rosemount, and they required 67 to 80 days from planting to heading when planted June 5 (Figure 9). Earlier plantings did not emerge. Only the early variety produced seed -- 1,000 pounds per acre from June 5 planting and 220 pounds per acre from June 24 planting. The plants remained green and leafy, and the seed shattered easily. A killing frost or a preharvest desiccant would be needed for combine-harvest of the standing crop. Otherwise the crop would need to be dried in windrows before combining. Tef is fine stemmed and the plants remain green and leafy to the base, indicating that it might have value for forage. Related species are used as perennial, warm-season pasture grasses from Texas-Oklahoma to California. Weeping lovegrass [Eragrostis curvula (Schrad.) Nees.] and sand lovegrass [Eragrostis trichodes (Nutt.) Wood.] are examples of the Eragrostis species used in the United States for forage. Stinkgrass (EragrostiS citianensis All.) is a common annual weed in Minnesota. Tef is self pollinated, so isolation is not needed for pure seed production. Tef and ragi were compared in forage production at Rosemount and Elk River (Table 12). Ragi yielded more forage than tef and was higher in protein or digestibility in five of six comparisons. The Minnesota ragi selection is higher and more dependable in seed yield than any of the tef introductions. Consequently, ragi has greater potential than tef as an annual, warm-season, grass forage crop in Minnesota. Table 12. Comparative performance of tef and ragi (finger millet) for hay (single cut) or pasture (two or three cuts) Year and trial Location Tef Ragi Tef Ragi yield/acre (pounds)' protein (percent)l 1968 hay Rosemount 6,353 6,666 7.3 12.4 1969 pasture total Rosemount --2 4,932 --- ---- first cut --2 2,142 --- 25.0 second cut --2 1,710 --- 20.2 third cut --2 1,080 --- 20.8 1970 hay Rosemount 5,016 11,144 16.1 11.2 1970 pasture total Rosemount 1,440 2,256 ---- ---- first cut 932 690 24.8 26.2 second cut 508 1,033 ---- ---- third cut --- 533 ---- ---- 1971 hay dryland Elk River 3,249 4,211 8.2 10.5 1971 hay irrigated Elk River 6,190 8,614 7.8 8.8 digestible dry matter (percent) 1971 hay irrigated Elk River --- --- 57.0 59.1 1 Oven-dry. 2 Failed to establish satisfactory stands. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ RAGI OR FINGER MILLET Ragi or finger millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.], also called African millet, is a major grain crop in parts of the tropics, subtropics, and semi-arid tropics to about 30 degrees north or south latitude. Ragi is consumed in bread, porridge, puddings, and liquor in Africa and Asia. The grain is deficient in lysine but above average in the sulfur-containing amino acids and tryptophan, so it complements the deficiencies of pulse crops. Consumption of both ragi and pulses provides a good balance of amino acids in the diet. Although plantings in May were satisfactory in Minnesota, experience from 1967 to 1981 indicated that June plantings were best. Most introductions did not produce seed in Minnesota. In one trial of 28 introductions from India and eight African countries, only one introduction produced seed on some plants (Figure 7). Selection continued for several years, and data reported here are primarily from this selection. The grain yield of ragi was not high enough in Minnesota to compete with adapted grain crops. Consequently, research was focused on its forage potential. The early maturing Minnesota selection was used even though later maturing lines had greater forage yield. Empire is a recommended variety of foxtail millet [Setaria itatica (L.) Beauv.]. Comparisons of ragi and Empire planted in June in rows 6 inches apart indicate that Empire is about the same or slightly higher in forage yield and much higher in seed yield (Table 9). However ragi averaged higher than Empire in forage protein and digestibility. Ragi leaves retain green color and density to the base of the plant long after heading (Figure 8). The top leaf blade on all plants tends to be bent or broken by August. The large flat stems elongate slowly so tall, leafy plants have short stems for a long time. However, early cutting to avoid stems in the forage required two harvests (Table 10). Although digestibility and protein decreased as the stem elongated, good digestibility compared with alfalfa was retained through the heading to seed stage (Table 10). The increase in digestibility at the heading to seed stage may be attributed to the seed. Pasturing of the high quality forage before stem elongation is untested but should be practical. Ragi has a very strong, dense root system in contrast to the weak root system of foxtail millet. Table 9. Comparison of finger and foxtail millets grown in rows 6 inches apart at Rosemount and Elk River, 1967-76 Years Finger Foxtail Location of trial millet millet forage/acre (pounds) (1) Rosemount 9 7,770 8,430 Elk River 3 3,550 5,880 Elk River irrigated 1 8,020 7,760 forage protein (percent) (1) Rosemount 5 9.4 8.6 Elk River 3 7.7 6.9 Elk River irrigated 1 7.1 7.42 forage digestibility (percent) (2) Rosemount 4 64 58 Elk River irrigated 1 59 62 grain/acre (pounds) (3) Rosemount 2 950 1890 (1) Oven-dry. (2) Good alfalfa standard was 64 percent. (3) separate plots not harvested for forage. Table 10. Growth stage at harvest and performance of finger millet at Rosemount, 1972-75 Harvest stage stem length (inches): 1 to 9 Forage yield/acre (pounds) (1): 6149 (3) Digestibility (percent) (2): 65.9 Protein (percent) (1): 16.3 Harvest stage stem length (inches): 12 to 16 Forage yield/acre (pounds) (1): 6757 (4) Digestibility (percent) (2): 61.2 Protein (percent) (1): 12.4 Harvest stage stem length (inches): 19 to 29 Forage yield/acre (pounds) (1): 7836 Digestibility (percent) (2): 61.2 Protein (percent) (1): 14.9 Harvest stage stem length (inches): headed to seed Forage yield/acre (pounds) (1): 8382 Digestibility (percent) (2): 63.7 Protein (percent) (1): 9.8 Harvest stage stem length (inches): LSD 5% Forage yield/acre (pounds) (1): 719 Digestibility (percent) (2): --- Protein (percent) (1): --- (1) Oven-dry. (2) Good alfalfa standard was 64.3. (3) Harvested twice. (4) Harvested twice in 1975; once in other years. Minnesota ragi, Empire foxtail millet, Minhybrid 7301 corn (Becker), Minhybrid 7301 and M 309 corn (Rosemount), and NK Sordan 77 (sorghum X sudangrass) hybrid were compared in rows 30 inches apart. The corn and sorghum were planted May 13-26 and the millets June 2-29 (Table 11). All were harvested once at mature silage stage except for two cuttings of the ragi that was cut before the stem elongated. Grain yields at maturity were determined on adjacent plots not harvested for silage. Table 11. Comparison of finger millet (ragi) with foxtail millet, corn, and sorghum X sudangrass hybrid grown in rows 30 inches apart at Rosemount from 1978-81 and at Becker from 1979-81 Ragi cut before stem elongation had extremely high protein, but yields were almost doubled by waiting until silage stage. Ragi was slightly higher in forage yield and decidedly better in quality than foxtail millet. Foxtail millet is not as well adapted to 30-inch rows as ragi. Corn and sorghum X sudangrass are well adapted to 30-inch rows, and they were much higher in yield but lower in protein than the millets. Corn produced the highest grain yields. Empire outyielded ragi but grain yields of both were sufficiently high to allow seed production for sale to farmers at a reasonable price. Ragi is self-pollinated. Less than 1 percent natural crossing was reported by researchers in Africa. Test weights per bushel of mature seed harvested at Rosemount ranged from 49 to 54 pounds. A related species is goosegrass [Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.] which is an annual grass weed in the tropics. Introductions from India and Kenya made a spreading growth like crabgrass rather than upright like ragi. They grew about 2 feet and headed but did not mature seed at Rosemount. ------------------------------------------------------------- NIGER Niger [Guizotia abyssinica (L.) Cass.), also called Nigerian thistle, is imported from India (formerly from Ethiopia) and used for birdfeed in the United States. It has been a major oilseed crop in Ethiopia since antiquity and is also used as an oilseed crop in India. It is in the same plant family as sunflower, an important oilseed crop in Minnesota, but the seed and plants resemble thistles without spiny leaves (Figure 10). Oil concentration in niger seed is about like that of sunflower, 40 to 45 percent, and the oil is used primarily for food. It can be used in soap, paint, oil lamps, and other nonfood uses. Niger oil characteristics of potential value for cosmetics are its lack of odor and its capacity for absorbing fragrances of flowers. The meal remaining after oil extraction is about 37 percent protein. Introductions from Ethiopia and India have been grown in research plots at Rosemount. Production practices were similar to those used for sunflower. Planting dates ranged from late April to June 1 and it required 2.5 weeks to emerge. Trifluralin (Treflan 4E) at 1 quart/acre preplant incorporated and cultivation controlled weeds. Row spacing was 30 inches, and plants grew 3 to 4 feet high by September (Figure 11). In only I of 3 years did the plants bloom before frost, and the yellow flowers, 1.25 inches in diameter, failed to produce mature seed. Yields of about 375 pounds per acre are reported in Ethiopia. Since niger is an annual and did not produce seed, it should not become a weed in Minnesota despite its wide distribution in birdfeed. However, weed regulatory personnel in some states have been alerted to this hypothetical problem. Niger seed could be produced in states with longer growing seasons. It has produced seed at Lincoln, Neb. Seed production in the United States to replace imports would reduce the foreign trade deficit by millions of dollars. However, potential yields and economics of production in the United States are unknown. Variability in maturity was evident at Rosemount indicating that varieties differing in maturity might be developed for south and central United States. Niger flowers are cross-pollinated by insects so isolation is needed for pure seed production. The five crops discussed in this report are examples of many potential field crops evaluated by the University of Minnesota Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics. The research started in 1948, and publications on some of the crops are available in agricultural libraries and county extension offices. New and uncommon field crops are of current interest as potential future alternatives to continued surplus production of the major field crops. Alternative crops researched were sunflower, safflower, field- bean, fieldpea, chickpea, grasspea, cowpea, tangierpea, sainfoin, lupine, peanut, fababean, adzuki, lentil, crownvetch, vetch, teparybean, mungbean, fenugreek, hyacinth bean, berseem, guar, sunn hemp, hemp, kenaf, rye, annual canarygrass, sorghum, broom- corn, millet, buckwheat, castorbean, naked-seeded pumpkin, crambe, rape, canola, mustard, tyfon, kale, comfrey, flax, ses- ame, fodder beet, anise, coriander, and about 200 other uncommon crops. Most alternative crops have genetic or production defi- ciencies or very limited usage. Consequently research is needed to develop better varieties, better production practices, or expanded usage. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Amaranth, Quinoa, Ragi, Tef, And Niger Alternative Agricultural Opportunities Minnesota Amaranth, Quinoa, Ragi, Tef, and Niger: Tiny Seeds of Ancient History and Modern Interest R.G. Robinson Amaranth, quinoa, ragi, tef, and niger, old crops in developing countries, are potential new crops in Minnesota. These crops have been grown intermittently for about 20 years in research plots on silt loam soil at Rosemount and on sandy soil at Elk River or Becker. The crops differ in use, culture, and appearance, but small seed is their common characteristic. A major advantage of small seed is the very few pounds needed to plant an acre (Table 1) and the relatively small space needed to store planting seed over the winter. Table 1. Approximate planting rates for small-seeded potential crops compared with wheat Seeds/ Planting Planting rate/ pound rate/acre square foot Crop (number) (pounds) (seeds) Amaranth 560,000 0.4 5 Quinoa 140,000 1.6 5 Ragi 230,000 5.0 25 Tef 1,815,000 2.0 85 Niger 150,000 4.0 15 Wheat 14,000 80.0 25 Commercial production of amaranth in the United States started in 1983 with about 400 acres followed by nearly 1500 acres in 1984 when production exceeded demand. This led to reduced acreage in 1985-86, but more farmers participated. Despite its small acreage, amaranth is a well-known and important crop in the United States. The large research program at the Rodale Research Center, Kutztown, PA 19530 since 1977 and the promotional efforts of the Rodale Press, Inc., Emmaus, PA 18049 aroused the interest of millions of Americans, and thousands have planted a few amaranth seeds. Quinoa will be planted for seed increase in Colorado in 1986 and commercial production is planned. Ragi, tef, and niger are not grown commercially in the United States. AMARANTH Amaranth was a major grain crop during the Inca and Aztec dynasties of South America and Mexico and is now an important grain crop in parts of India, Pakistan, Nepal, and China. Amaranth is an important vegetable crop in parts of Africa, Southeast Asia, India, China, and the Caribbean. Grain amaranth species are Amaranthus cruentus (L.) Thell., Amaranthus hypochondriacus L., and Amaranthus caudatus L. The leaves of vegetable amaranth are used for boiled greens and include Amaranthus cruentus, dubius, tricolor, lividus, hybridus, palmeri, gangeticus, and other species. 1 The author is a professor, Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108. Amaranth species in Minnesota are the common weeds -- redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) and prostrate pigweed (Amaranthus blitoides s. wats.). These dark-seeded weeds are hardier than the crops, and redroot pigweed with its strong tap root and upright growth is a serious weed in amaranth (Figure 1). Amaranth is drought-tolerant and grows best in warm, dry weather. Species differ in daylength requirements from short to long indicating a potential world wide adaptation from the equator through the temperate zones. Amaranth, like corn, uses the C4 pathway of photosynthesis. These crops convert more atmospheric carbon to sugar per unit of water lost than most other crops that use the conventional C3 pathway. Consequently, amaranth has great potential but undeveloped yielding ability. Varieties Varietal trials from 1977 to 1982 at Rosemount included about 20 varieties belonging to several species, and seed yields ranged from 300 to 3800 pounds per acre from hand-harvested plots. Heights ranged from a few inches for some vegetable varieties to over 8 feet for some A. hypochondriacus varieties. A. cruentus varieties headed about 9 days earlier than A. hypochondriacus varieties. Most of the United States crop consists of white-seeded varieties of A. cruentus and include: R 1041 was selected by the Rodale Research Center in plantings made from seed collected in Mexico. R K112 is a white-seeded selection from a cross made at the Rodale Research Center between a black-seeded African and a white-seeded Mexican line. R 158 is a uniform selection of R K112 made by Johnny's Selected Seeds, Albion, ME 04910. A. hypochondriacus varieties are also available but not commonly grown as a farm crop. Selections from crosses between A. hypochondriacus and A. cruentus are now available. Amaranth is monoecious with one male flower in each group (glomerule) of female flowers. There has been no evidence of intercrossing between varieties in progeny of seed saved from plantings at Rosemount. The breeders at the Rodale Research Center are handling amaranth as a self-pollinated crop. In some other environments, outcrossing has been reported. Seedbed Preparation and Planting The home gardener can either plant seed by hand and thin or transplant started plants, but stand establishment is a major problem in farm fields. Germination and emergence should be fast and uniform so that the crop establishes before weeds. Amaranth requires a warm soil, preferably over65 F, for germination. Soil temperature near the surface fluctuates with air temperature, but consistently warm temperatures are not achieved until June. A major advantage of delaying planting until June is that many weeds emerge earlier and will be destroyed by seedbed preparation tillage. The small seed and weak seedlings make shallow planting (